⑴ 肝腹水可以治好吗
肝腹水是肝硬化晚期的典型并发症,一旦出现肝腹水往往代表肝硬化步入了晚期。肝腹水治疗情况主要看患者身体情况和治疗措施,大多数早发现早治疗的肝腹水患者病情可以得到控制,使肝腹水消退,身体达到基本康复。但是,如果出现肝腹水后仍然不积极治疗,或者治疗方法不恰当,就有可能使病情迅速恶化,甚至导致死亡。
事实证明多数经过专业治疗的肝腹水能有效控制,肝腹水治好后只要注意生活细节,保持乐观的精神状态,遵循医嘱,防止肝腹水的复发。
⑵ 腹膜透析患者刚刚开始透析,不太明白超滤量怎么算,比如我中午灌入1330毫升,晚上流出1300毫升
腹膜透析超滤量是透出量减去透入量。因为没有描述透入量,不能准确算出超滤量。一般常规透入量是2000ml,故超滤量是500ml。
以慢性肾衰竭的患者为例。如果患者有腹膜透析适应证,没有禁忌证,则可以选择腹膜透析治疗。专科医生将向患者或监护人无偏见地介绍血液透析、腹膜透析、肾移植等肾脏替代治疗方法的治疗方式、原理和各自的优缺点并给予中肯的治疗建议。除医疗方面原因外,可由患者自主选择透析方式。
需要接受透析治疗的情况:
透析疗法是利用半渗透膜来去除血液中的代谢废物和多余水分并维持酸碱平衡的一种治疗方法。
一般来说,患者血肌酐浓度超过700,或者肾小球滤过率在15ml/min/1.73m2以下时,如果出现了水负荷过重(比如有水肿或腹胀的症状)、严重的营养不良、药物难以纠正的高钾血症、高磷血症等,就需要做好随时做透析的准备。
⑶ 分离22KD的蛋白质选择什么型号的超滤膜
如果是分离22kDa及分子量远小于它的小蛋白,推荐用millipore的超滤管,截留分子量10kDa,体积1-15ml都有。主要还是看你的目的蛋白是集中于浓缩液部分,还是滤液部分,从而选择合适的截留分子量
⑷ 慢性肾衰竭可以分为几期呢
慢性肾衰竭(CRF)时称尿毒症,不是一种独立的疾病,是各种病因引起肾脏损害并进行性恶化,当发展到终末期,肾功能接近于正常10%~15%时,出现一系列的临床综合症状。由于肾功能损害多是一个较长的发展过程,不同阶段,有其不同的程度和特点,传统上将肾功能水平分成以下几期:
1.肾功能代偿期: 肾小球滤过率(GFR) ≥正常值1/2时,血尿素氮和肌酐不升高、体内代谢平衡,不出现症状(血肌酐(Scr)在133~177μmol/L(2mg/dl))。
2.肾功能不全期: 肾小球滤过率(GFR)<正常值50%以下,血肌酐(Scr)水平上升至177μmol/L(2mg/dl)以上,血尿素氮(BUN)水平升高>7.0mmol/L(20mg/dl),病人有乏力,食欲不振,夜尿多,轻度贫血等症状。
3.肾功能衰竭期: 当内生肌酐清除率(Ccr)下降到20ml/min以下,BUN水平高于17.9~21.4mmol/L(50~60mg/dl),Scr升至442μmol/L(5mg/dl)以上,病人出现贫血,血磷水平上升,血钙下降,代谢性酸中毒,水、电解质紊乱等。
4.尿毒症终末期: Ccr在10ml/min以下,Scr升至707μmol/L以上,酸中毒明显,出现各系统症状,以致昏迷。
治疗方法:
(一)饮食治疗
1.给予优质低蛋白饮食0.6克/(公斤体重·天)、富含维生素饮食,如鸡蛋、牛奶和瘦肉等优质蛋白质。病人必须摄入足量热卡,一般为30~35千卡/(公斤体重·天)。必要时主食可采用去植物蛋白的麦淀粉。
2.低蛋白饮食加必需氨基酸或α-酮酸治疗,应用α-酮酸治疗时注意复查血钙浓度,高钙血症时慎用。在无严重高血压及明显水肿、尿量>1000ml/天者,食盐2~4克/天。
(二)药物治疗
CRF药物治疗的目的包括:①缓解CRF症状,减轻或消除病人痛苦, 提高生活质量;②延缓CRF病程的进展,防止其进行性加重;③防治并发症,提高生存率。
1.纠正酸中毒和水、电解质紊乱
(1)纠正代谢性中毒 代谢性酸中毒的处理,主要为口服碳酸氢钠(NaHCO3)。中、重度病人必要时可静脉输入,在72小时或更长时间后基本纠正酸中毒。对有明显心功能衰竭的病人,要防止NaHCO3输入总量过多,输入速度宜慢,以免使心脏负荷加重甚至心功能衰竭加重。
(2)水钠紊乱的防治 适当限制钠摄入量,一般NaCl的摄入量应不超过6~8g/d。有明显水肿、高血压者,钠摄入量一般为2~3g/d(NaCl摄入量5~7g/d),个别严重病例可限制为1~2g/d(NaCl 2.5~5g)。也可根据需要应用襻利尿剂(呋塞米、布美他尼等),噻嗪类利尿剂及贮钾利尿剂对CRF病(Scr >220μmol/L)疗效甚差,不宜应用。对急性心功能衰竭严重肺水肿者,需及时给单纯超滤、持续性血液滤过(如连续性静脉-静脉血液滤过)。
对慢性肾衰病人轻、中度低钠血症,一般不必积极处理,而应分析其不同原因,只对真性缺钠者谨慎地进行补充钠盐。对严重缺钠的低钠血症者,也应有步骤地逐渐纠正低钠状态。
(3)高钾血症的防治 肾衰竭病人易发生高钾血症,尤其是血清钾水平>5.5mmol/L时,则应更严格地限制钾摄入。在限制钾摄入的同时,还应注意及时纠正酸中毒,并适当应用利尿剂(呋塞米、布美他尼等),增加尿钾排出,以有效防止高钾血症发生。
对已有高钾血症的病人,除限制钾摄入外,还应采取以下各项措施:①积极纠正酸中毒,必要时(血钾>6mmol/L)可静滴碳酸氢钠。②给予襻利尿剂:最好静脉或肌肉注射呋塞米或布美他尼。③应用葡萄糖-胰岛素溶液输入。④口服降钾树脂:以聚苯乙烯磺酸钙更为适用,因为离子交换过程中只释放离钙,不释放出钠,不致增加钠负荷。⑤对严重高钾血症(血钾>6.5mmol/L),且伴有少尿、利尿效果欠佳者,应及时给予血液透析治疗。
2.高血压的治疗
对高血压进行及时、合理的治疗,不仅是为了控制高血压的某些症状,而且是为了积极主动地保护靶器官(心、肾、脑等)。血管紧张素转化酶抑制剂(ACEI)、血管紧张素Ⅱ受体拮抗剂(ARB)、钙通道拮抗剂、襻利尿剂、β-阻滞剂、血管扩张剂等均可应用,以ACEI、ARB、钙拮抗剂的应用较为广泛。透析前CRF病人的血压应<130/80mmHg,维持透析病人血压一般不超过140/90mmHg即可。
3.贫血的治疗和红细胞生成刺激剂(ESA)的应用
当血红蛋白(Hb)<110g/L或红细胞压积(Hct)<33%时,应检查贫血原因。如有缺铁,应予补铁治疗,必要时可应用ESA治疗,包括人类重组红细胞生成素(rHuEPO)、达依泊丁等,直至Hb上升至110~120g/L。
4.低钙血症、高磷血症和肾性骨病的治疗
当GFR<50ml/min后,即应适当限制磷摄入量(<800~1000mg/d)。当GFR<30ml/min时,在限制磷摄入的同时,需应用磷结合剂口服,以碳酸钙、枸椽酸钙较好。对明显高磷血症(血清磷>7mg/dl)或血清Ca、P乘积>65(mg2/dl2)者,则应暂停应用钙剂,以防转移性钙化的加重。此时可考虑短期服用氢氧化铝制剂或司维拉姆,待Ca、P乘积<65(mg2/dl2)时,再服用钙剂。
对明显低钙血症病人,可口服1,25(OH)2D3(钙三醇);连服2~4周后,如血钙水平和症状无改善,可增加用量。治疗中均需要监测血Ca、P、PTH浓度,使透析前CRF病人血IPTH保持在35~110pg/ml;使透析病人血钙磷乘积 <55mg2/dl2(4.52mmol2/L2),血PTH保持在150~300pg/ml。
5.防治感染
平时应注意防止感冒,预防各种病原体的感染。抗生素的选择和应用原则,与一般感染相同,唯剂量要调整。在疗效相近的情况下,应选用肾毒性最小的药物。
6.高脂血症的治疗
透析前CRF病人与一般高血脂者治疗原则相同,应积极治疗。但对维持透析病人,高脂血症的标准宜放宽,如血胆固醇水平保持在250~300mg/dl,血甘油三酯水平保持在150~200mg/dl为好。
7.口服吸附疗法和导泻疗法
口服吸附疗法(口服氧化淀粉或活性炭制剂)、导泻疗法(口服大黄制剂)、结肠透析等,均可利用胃肠道途径增加尿毒症毒素的排出。上述疗法主要应用于透析前CRF病人,对减轻病人氮质血症起到一定辅助作用。
8.其他
(1)糖尿病肾衰竭病人 随着GFR不断下降,必须相应调整胰岛素用量,一般应逐渐减少;
(2)高尿酸血症 通常不需治疗,但如有痛风,则予以别嘌醇;
(3)皮肤瘙痒 外用乳化油剂,口服抗组胺药物,控制高磷血症及强化透析或高通量透析,对部分病人有效。
(三)尿毒症期的替代治疗
当CRF病人GFR 6~10ml/min(血肌酐>707μmol/L)并有明显尿毒症临床表现,经治疗不能缓解时,则应让病人作好思想准备,进行透析治疗。糖尿病肾病可适当提前(GFR 10~15ml/min)安排透析。
1.透析治疗
(1)血液透析 应预先给病人作动静脉内瘘(位置一般在前臂),内瘘成熟至少需要4周,最好等候8~12周后再开始穿刺。血透治疗一般每周3次,每次4~6小时。在开始血液透析6周内,尿毒症症状逐渐好转。如能坚持合理的透析,大多数血透病人的生活质量显著改善,不少病人能存活15~20年以上。
(2)腹膜透析 持续性不卧床腹膜透析疗法(CAPD)应用腹膜的滤过与透析作用,持续地对尿毒症毒素进行清除,设备简单,操作方便,安全有效。将医用硅胶管长期植入腹腔内,应用此管将透析液输入腹腔,每次1.5~2L,6小时交换一次,每天交换4次。CAPD对尿毒症的疗效与血液透析相似,但在残存肾功能与心血管的保护方面优于血透,且费用也相对较低。CAPD的装置和操作近年已有显著改进,腹膜炎等并发症已大为减少。CAPD尤其适用于老人、有心血管合并症的病人、糖尿病病人、小儿病人或作动静脉内瘘有困难者。
2.肾移植
病人通常应先作一个时期透析,待病情稳定并符合有关条件后,则可考虑进行肾移植术。成功的肾移植可恢复正常的肾功能(包括内分泌和代谢功能),使病人几乎完全康复。移植肾可由尸体或亲属供肾(由兄弟姐妹或父母供肾),亲属肾移植的效果更好。要在ABO血型配型和HLA配型合适的基础上,选择供肾者。肾移植需长期使用免疫抑制剂,以防治排斥反应,常用的药物为糖皮质激素、环孢素、硫唑嘌呤和(或)麦考酚吗乙脂(MMF)等。近年肾移植的疗效显著改善,移植肾的1年存活率约为85%,5年存活率约为60%。HLA配型佳者,移植肾的存活时间较长。
⑸ 心血管的英文论文以及翻译
Chronic kidney disease is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease
Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a widespread concern of public health, the incidence increased graally, at the same time brought about serious consequences and problems. We note that the patient's renal failure is dialysis and kidney transplantation, but few scholars concerned about CKD and cardiovascular disease (CVD) relationship. Now that CKD with CVD-related, and progress than acute renal failure more likely die of cardiovascular disease, CVD is the most common CKD the cause of death [1]. Recognized that CKD is a risk factor for CVD that is very important. Only in this way will it be possible to conct an in-depth, and then search for the prevention and treatment of related measures to ensure greater benefits for these patients.
CKD is defined as biopsy or the markers of renal damage confirmed> 3 months, or GFR <60ml / (min.1.73m2)> 3 months. Cause of disease and the general based on credits for the diabetic and non-diabetic renal disease and transplantation. Renal dysfunction by renal biopsy or related markers such as proteinuria, abnormal urinary sediment, abnormal imaging to diagnose and so on. Proteinuria is not only to prove the existence of CKD, renal disease may also become an important basis for the type of diagnosis and the severity of kidney disease and cardiovascular disease-related. Urinary albumin and creatinine ratio or total protein and creatinine ratio can be used to assess proteinuria. GFR <60ml / (min.1.73m2) renal damage as a critical value, which indicates the level of GFR is often the beginning of renal failure, including increased incidence of cardiovascular disease and the degree of risk. GFR <15ml / (min.1.73m2) will need dialysis treatment.
GKD especially terminal kidney disease (ESRD) patients, CVD risk of a marked increase in general through the vascular tree to achieve. ESRD with atherosclerosis may be a causal relationship to each other, on the one hand, accelerated atherosclerosis in kidney disease progress, on the other hand, ESRD is the deterioration of many of the traditional atherosclerotic risk factors [2]. In general, CVD is the basic types of vascular disease and cardiomyopathy, the two subtypes of vascular disease is atherosclerosis and vascular remodeling, and CKD are the role of these two subtypes. Atherosclerotic plaque formation and the main obstruction in the main, CKD in atherosclerosis and the high incidence of a much wider range of diffuse atherosclerosis in a marked increase in cardiovascular disease mortality and accelerated deterioration of renal function. Atherosclerosis can lead to arterial wall thickening and myocardial ischemia matrix. In CKD patients, ischemic heart disease such as angina, myocardial infarction and sudden death, and cerebrovascular disease, peripheral vascular disease and heart failure are more common. Initially that the dialysis patients may be secondary to ischemic heart disease in easy to overload, left ventricular hypertrophy and small artery disease, resulting in reced oxygen supply. However, studies have found that EPO in the former region, the low level of hemoglobin that also may be associated with ischemia-related. CKD patients the incidence of major vascular remodeling is higher, can lead to vascular remodeling in pressure overload, through the wall and the cavity wall thickening and increased the ratio of traffic overload, or to achieve, but mainly to increase the diameter and the wall thickness of main. Vascular remodeling in arterial compliance often dropped, resulting in increased systolic blood pressure, pulse pressure increased, left ventricular hypertrophy and reced coronary perfusion [3,4]. Decreased arterial compliance and increased pulse pressure in dialysis patients are cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors independent [5].水钠潴留period as a result of dialysis treatment by ultrafiltration, dialysis patients with the diagnosis of heart failure more difficult, but the decline in blood pressure, fatigue, loss of appetite and other signs of heart failure diagnosis can be used as an important clue; On the other hand, more水钠潴留inappropriate to reflect the ultrafiltration rather than heart failure or heart failure combined ultrafiltration inappropriate. In fact, ring dialysis ultrafiltration is inappropriate for one of the reasons why high blood pressure, heart failure often prompts. Therefore, dialysis patients with heart failure is an important indicator of poor prognosis, which often prompts the patient is in progress of cardiovascular disease.
1 chronic kidney disease risk factors of cardiovascular disease
Is well known that patients suffering from kidney disease increase in cardiovascular disease mortality, largely attributable to high blood pressure caused by kidney disease, dyslipidemia, and anemia, but may lead to the causes of plaque rupture is not clear. Light to moderate CKD patients significantly increased the risk of vascular events, and when GFR <45ml / (min.1.73m2) at the risk greater. Recent studies suggest that e to ACEI (such as captopril, etc.) can rece chronic kidney disease patients after myocardial infarction risk, if there is no clear contraindication, it is recommended conventional [6]. In normal circumstances, the application of chronic kidney disease treatment of ACEI or ARBs should be careful, it is necessary to understand the benefits of the application, but also take into account blood pressure, renal function, blood electrolyte changes, and possible interactions between drugs, such as the decline in renal function occur, increased serum potassium, etc. must be stopped [1].
In CKD in CVD risk factors to be divided into two types of traditional and non-traditional, traditional risk factors are the main means used to assess symptoms of ischemic heart disease factors such as age, diabetes, systolic blood pressure, left ventricular hypertrophy, and low HDL - C and so on, these factors and the relationship between cardiovascular disease and most people are the same.
And define the non-traditional risk factors need to meet the following conditions: (1) to promote the development of CVD rationality biology; (2) the risk factors increased with the severity of kidney disease-related evidence; (3) reveals the CKD and the risk of CVD factors relevant evidence; (4) risk factors in the control group after treatment to rece CVD evidence. Has been identified in non-traditional risk factors are mainly Hyperhomocysteinemia, oxidative stress, abnormal lipid levels, and atherosclerosis-related increase in markers of inflammation [7]. Recent study found that dialysis patients with oxidative stress and inflammatory markers significantly higher than the general population. Oxidative stress and inflammation may become the basic medium, while other factors such as anemia and cardiac disease, and calcium and phosphorus metabolic abnormalities and vascular remodeling and a decline in vascular compliance.
1.1 Failure cardiovascular disease
CVD mortality in dialysis patients than the general population 10 to 30 times, and the emergence of heart failure after acute myocardial infarction and high mortality rates, myocardial infarction within 1 to 2 years up to 59% mortality ~ 73%, significantly higher than the general crowd, and the Worcester heart Attack Study found that 3 / 4 males and 2 / 3 of women suffering from acute myocardial infarction in diabetic patients still alive after 2 years. At the same time hemodialysis patients atherosclerosis, heart failure and left ventricular hypertrophy abnormally high incidence of nearly 40% of the patients of ischemic heart disease or heart failure.
1.2 Cardiovascular disease after renal transplantation
Renal transplant patients, 35% ~ 50% of CVD death, CVD mortality than the general population of high 2-fold, but was significantly lower than that in hemodialysis patients. The most likely reason is acceptable from a kidney transplant and dialysis-related hemodynamic abnormalities and abnormal toxins. CVD after renal transplantation is the multiple risk factors, and not only include traditional factors such as hypertension, diabetes, hyperlipidemia, left ventricular hypertrophy, and have a decline in GFR of the non-traditional factors such as hyperhomocysteinemia, as well as immune suppression and exclusion.
1.3 of cardiovascular disease in diabetic nephropathy
Early diabetic nephropathy is mainly expressed in microalbuminuria, and progression of cardiovascular disease. Although type 1 diabetes patients with normal blood pressure, but was found in 24h at night to monitor the existence of "Nondipping" mode, may lead to microalbuminuria. "Nondipping" is identified the risk factors of cardiovascular disease, microalbuminuria with the diabetic patients are more vulnerable to dyslipidemia, blood glucose and blood pressure difficult to control. The study has confirmed that microalbuminuria with CVD have a clear relationship between the two types of diabetes in both the presence, but because of the age factor in type 2 diabetes in the more significant. Microalbuminuria is now considered that the prognosis of diabetic patients with cardiovascular disease and other factors in the risk of death indicators point of view can be explained as follows: (1) traditional microalbuminuria indivial a higher incidence of risk factors; (2) micro - proteinuria can reflect the endothelial dysfunction, increased vascular permeability, abnormal coagulation and fibrinolysis system; (3) and inflammatory markers related; (4) are more vulnerable to end-organ damage. Prior studies suggest that the recent high blood pressure and vascular endothelial dysfunction, and therefore these patients may further aggravate the endothelial damage. However, the mechanism is not entirely clear at present that may be related to L-arginine transport by endothelial cells to damage, which led to the cell matrix of the lack of NO synthesis.
1.4 Non-diabetic renal disease cardiovascular disease
We mainly albuminuria and decreased GFR as a sign of chronic kidney disease, proteinuria than at the same time that microalbuminuria is more important, because whether or not there is diabetes, nephrotic syndrome and cardiovascular disease are related to the existence of the abnormal changes, such as serious hyperlipidemia and high blood coagulation status, etc. This explains the importance of recing proteinuria. At present, we risk groups were divided into 3 groups, has been suffering from CVD, other vascular disease or diabetes as a high-risk groups; with traditional CVD risk factors such as high blood pressure, age, etc., as the crowd in danger; the community known as the low-risk group members
翻译.. 慢性肾病是心血管疾病的危险因素
慢性肾病(CKD)是值得广泛关注的公共健康,发病率逐渐上升,同时带来了严重的后果和问题。我们注意到肾衰病人的主要是透析和肾移植,但是很少有学者关注CKD与心血管疾病(CVD)的关系。现已认为CKD也与CVD有关,且比急性进展中的肾功能衰竭更容易死于心血管疾病,CVD是 CKD最常见的死亡原因〔1〕。认识到CKD是CVD的高危因素这一点,是很重要的。只有这样,才有可能进行深入,进而寻求相关的预防和治疗措施,使这些病人获得更大益处。
CKD是指由肾活检或有关的标志物证实的肾功损害>3个月,或GFR<60ml/(min.1.73m2)>3个月。一般依据病和病因学分为糖尿病性、非糖尿病性和移植后肾病。肾功能损害可通过肾活检或相关的标志物如蛋白尿、异常尿沉积物、影像学异常等来诊断。蛋白尿不仅可以证明CKD的存在,亦可成为肾病类型诊断的重要依据,并与肾脏疾病的严重程度和心血管疾病的有关。尿白蛋白与肌酐比率或总蛋白与肌酐比率可用于评估蛋白尿。GFR<60ml/(min.1.73m2)作为肾功损害的临界值,该水平GFR往往预示肾衰的开始,其中也包括增加心血管疾病的发生及危险程度。GFR<15ml/(min.1.73m2)则需要透析治疗。
GKD尤其是终末肾病(ESRD)患者,CVD危险明显增加,一般通过血管树来实现的。ESRD与动脉粥样硬化可能互为因果关系,一方面粥样硬化加速肾病进展,另一方面ESRD恶化是许多传统粥样硬化的危险因素〔2〕。一般而言,CVD的基本类型是血管疾病和心肌病,血管疾病的两种亚型是动脉粥样硬化和大血管重塑,而CKD对这两种亚型均有作用。动脉粥样硬化主要以斑块形成和闭塞为主,CKD中动脉粥样硬化发生率很高而且范围更广,弥漫的粥样硬化明显增加心血管疾病死亡率和加速肾功能恶化。动脉粥样硬化可导致动脉壁基质增厚和心肌缺血。在CKD病人中,缺血性心脏病如心绞痛、心梗和猝死,以及脑血管疾病、外周血管疾病和心衰都是比较常见的。最初认为透析病人出现缺血性心脏病可能继发于容易超载、左室肥厚和小动脉病变,导致氧供减少。但是后来的研究发现,在前促红素区域,血红蛋白水平低,说明亦可能与缺血有关。CKD病人大血管重塑发生率亦较高,血管重塑可导致压力超载,通过管壁增厚和管壁与内腔比值增高或者流量超载来实现,但主要以增加的管壁直径和厚度为主。血管重塑常常使动脉顺应性下降,导致收缩压增加、脉压增大、左室肥厚和冠脉灌注减少〔3,4〕。动脉顺应性下降和脉压增大均为透析病人心血管疾病(CVD)的独立危险因素〔5〕。由于透析期间水钠潴留可通过超滤得到治疗,透析病人心衰的诊断比较困难,但血压下降、疲劳、食欲减退等征象,可作为心衰诊断的重要线索;另一方面,水钠潴留更能反映超滤不合适,而不是心衰或心衰合并超滤不恰当。实际上,透析期间超滤不合适的原因之一就是高血压,往往提示心衰。因此,心衰是透析病人预后不良的重要指标,这往往提示病人心血管疾病正在进展。
1 慢性肾病的心血管疾病危险因素
众所周知,患肾脏疾病的病人心血管病死亡率增加,很大程度上归因于肾病所致的高血压、血脂异常和贫血,但可能导致粥样斑块破裂的原因还不是很清楚。轻到中度CKD病人血管事件危险明显增高,而当GFR<45ml/(min.1.73m2)时这种危险更大。近期有关研究认为因 ACEI(如卡托普利等)可降低慢性肾病病人心梗后的危险,如没有明显禁忌证,建议常规〔6〕。而在一般情况下,慢性肾病应用ACEI或ARBs治疗要慎重,既要了解应用的益处,又要考虑到血压、肾功能、血电解质变化和可能的药物间相互作用,如出现肾功能下降、血钾增高等就必须停药〔1〕。
在CKD中把CVD的危险因素分为传统和非传统两种,传统的危险因素主要指用于评估有症状缺血性心脏病的因素,如年龄、糖尿病、收缩性高血压、左室肥厚、低HDL-C等,这些因素与心血管疾病的关系与一般人是一致的。
而界定非传统危险因素需要满足如下条件:(1)促进CVD发展的生物学方面的合理性;(2)危险因素升高与肾病严重程度相关的证据;(3)揭示CKD中CVD与危险因素关系的相关证据;(4)有对照组中危险因素经治疗后CVD降低的证据。目前已确定的非传统危险因素主要有高同型半胱氨酸血症、氧化应激、异常脂血症、与粥样硬化有关的增高的炎症标志物〔7〕。近来研究发现,透析病人氧化应激和炎症标志物水平明显高于一般人群。氧化应激和炎症有可能成为基本的介质,而其他因素如贫血与心肌病有关,钙磷代谢异常与血管重塑和血管顺应性下降有关。
1.1 肾衰中心血管疾病
透析病人中CVD死亡率比普通人群高10~30倍,而出现急性心梗和心衰后致死率很高,心梗后1~2年死亡率达59%~73%,明显高于一般人群,而Worcester heart Attack研究发现,有3/4男性和2/3女性糖尿病病人患急性心梗后仍存活2年以上。同时血液透析病人动脉粥样硬化、心衰和左室肥厚发生率异常增高,有接近40%的病人出现缺血性心脏病或心衰。
1.2 肾移植后心血管疾病
肾移植病人中有35%~50%因CVD死亡,CVD死亡率比普通人群高2倍,但明显低于血液透析病人。最可能的原因是接受肾移植后免除了与透析有关的血流动力学异常和毒素异常。肾移植后CVD的危险因素是多重的,既包括传统因素如高血压、糖尿病、高脂血症、左室肥厚,亦有与GFR 下降有关的非传统因素如高同型半胱氨酸血症以及免疫抑制和排斥。
1.3 糖尿病肾病的心血管疾病
糖尿病肾病的早期主要表现为微量白蛋白尿,与心血管疾病进展有关。尽管1型糖尿病病人血压正常,但在24h监测中发现夜间存在 “Nondipping”模式,可能导致微量白蛋白尿。“Nondipping”是已确认的心血管疾病的危险因素,伴有微量白蛋白尿的糖尿病病人也更易出现血脂异常、血糖难以控制和血压升高。有关研究已证实微量白蛋白尿与CVD有明确关系,在两种类型糖尿病中均存在,但由于年龄因素在2型糖尿病中更显著。现已认为微量白蛋白尿是糖尿病病人心血管疾病预后和其他致死因素的危险指标,可通过如下观点来解释:(1)微量白蛋白尿个体传统危险因素发生率更高;(2)微量白蛋白尿能反映内皮功能异常、血管渗透性增加、凝血纤溶系统异常;(3)与炎症标志物有关;(4)更易出现终末器官损害。最近Prior研究认为高血压与血管内皮功能异常有关,因此在这类病人中可能进一步加重内皮损害。但有关机制不完全清楚,目前认为可能与L-精氨酸转运至内皮细胞受到损害有关,进而导致细胞内合成NO的基质缺乏。
1.4 非糖尿病性肾病的心血管疾病
我们主要把蛋白尿和GFR下降作为慢性肾病的标志,同时认为蛋白尿比微量白蛋白尿更重要,因为无论是否存在糖尿病,肾病综合征均存在与心血管疾病有关的异常改变,如严重高脂血症和高凝血状态等,这就说明降低蛋白尿具有重要意义。目前我们把危险人群分为3组,已经患CVD、其他血管病或糖尿病作为高危人群;具有CVD传统的易患因素如高血压、年龄等作为中危人群;将社区人员称为低危人群
⑹ 透析的原理是什么
通过小分来子经过半透自膜扩散到水(或缓冲液)的原理,将小分子与生物大分子分开的一种分离纯化技术。
分类:用于医学上的透析大致分为三大类:血液透析、腹膜透析、结肠透析。
适用范围:使体液内的成分(溶质或水分)通过半透膜排出体外的治疗方法。常用于急性或慢性肾功能衰竭、药物或其他毒物在体内蓄积的情况。常用的透析法有血液透析及腹膜透析。
需要接受透析治疗的情况:
透析疗法是利用半渗透膜来去除血液中的代谢废物和多余水分并维持酸碱平衡的一种治疗方法。
一般来说,患者血肌酐浓度超过700,或者肾小球滤过率在15ml/min/1.73m2以下时,如果出现了水负荷过重(比如有水肿或腹胀的症状)、严重的营养不良、药物难以纠正的高钾血症、高磷血症等,就需要做好随时做透析的准备。
血透和腹透的区别:
血透更容易达到充分性,但对心血管要求条件高,透析时间相对固定,必须按时到医院进行透析。
腹透禁忌证较少,不受时间限制,可以在家进行操作治疗,但容易因卫生条件不佳或者操作不当诱发腹膜炎。
⑺ 慢性肾功能不全能生存多久
肾功能不全治疗方法主要分为以下两个方向:
1、因为肾功能不全,肾脏的滤过和回重吸收功能障碍,答所以如果达到了尿毒症期,会进行肾脏的替代治疗,是最关键的治疗方法之一;
2、肾功能不全会引起各种并发症,比如高血压,会有针对性的做调节血压的治疗;比如贫血,会给病人注射促红素纠正贫血;比如甲状旁腺激素增高,可做调节钙磷代谢紊乱的治疗;还会针对病人各种的并发症做各系统的对症支持治疗。
所以针对肾功能不全,治疗主要是肾脏的替代治疗,以及肾功能不全并发症的对症支持治疗。
⑻ 安装净水器后怎么去测试水的水质
家用净水器检测净化后的水质就是检测净水器过滤水的水质。
检测水质的方法有:
1、检测水中的余氯:
先准备余氯测试剂,然后准备两杯15ML水,一杯是净化后的水,一杯是普通的自来水,分别在两杯水中加入2滴的余氯测试剂,水的颜色就会发生变化,余氯测试剂的说明书上有余氯颜色对比卡,按照水的颜色找到对应的颜色图案,就知道余氯的含量了。还可以把两杯水进行颜色对比,颜色深的余氯含量较高。
2、检测水中的有机物细菌病毒:
影响水质的不仅仅是余氯,更多的是有机物、重金属等污染,要检测这些污染是否已被净水器去除,我们需要用到水质电解器。同样我们先准备两杯水,一杯为净化水,另外一杯为自来水,然后我们把水质电解器的铝棒和铁棒放入水中,插上电源按上开关,通电0.5-1分钟左右,再断开电源,这时我们会发现两杯水的颜色发生变化。水的颜色越浅,水质就越好,反之就越差。我们还可以根据水的颜色与电解水质说明书上颜色对比,判断出水中含哪一种杂质还比较多。
3、TDS值检测:
世面上还有一种检测水质的工具-TDS笔,我们先来了解TDS的概念,TDS即为溶解的固体总量,单位为毫克/升。水中溶解的固体越多,那么水的TDS值就越高,水质也就越差。检测水的TDS值我们通常用TDS笔,使用方法很简单,只要将笔头插入水中,电子显示屏数值稳定以后,按住HOLD键即可。数值越低,水的纯度越高。一般纯水机过滤水的TDS值为20左右。太高则不正常,可能是纯水机失效或TDS笔质量问题。
注意:上面两种检测水质的工具均可在网上购买到,我们在买净水器时顺便购买即可,检测水质时,应在正常使用净水器一周左右的时间检测,那样更加准确。平时我们也可每隔一段时间检测一下水质,看是否需要清洗或者更换净水器滤芯。
延伸阅读:
使用日常净水器注意问题:
1、净水器使用后应一直保持超滤膜滤芯处于湿润状态。如果超滤膜滤芯干化,会导致产水量急剧下降并且无法恢复。
2、超过三天不使用净水器,再次使用时应对净水器反复进行顺冲洗2-5分钟,直到净水器内的存水排尽为止。
3、在自来水停水的情况下,请先打开排污水龙头将自来水管内的泥沙、铁锈等排尽后,再打开净化水龙头使用净水。
4、净水器的总产水量与净水器的进水水质有关,如果净水器进水水质较好,则总产水量会上升,反之进水水质差,则总产水量会下降,相应的滤芯使用寿命会略短。
5、净水器使用时,经常对净水器进行冲洗,可有效延长净水器的使用寿命。
6、长期使用净水器,其产水量会逐渐下降,但产水水质仍然合格,可放心使用。
7、净水器发生故障时请立即关闭自来水进水阀,切断净水器的进水,请勿自行拆卸。